DC Power Cords

DC Power Cords




lso known as DC power cables, DC power cords are a kind of electrical cables used for connecting two DC devices or a DC device and a DC power source.

Types of DC Products
There are different types of DC products manufactured and available in the market. These include:

* DC power supply cords: This is used for connecting a DC power supply to a device that uses DC power. These power supply cords are available in varying lengths and can have either two or three prongs.

* DC power extension cords: This is used for extending the length of a standard DC power cable. These power extension cords have a plug on one end and one or more sockets on the other.

* DC power adapter cords: This cord has a different type of plug or receptacle on each end.

DC Power Cords Specifications
There are certain important specifications that must be considered while selecting DC power cords. These are:

* Cord length: It is the measure of the cord in meters or feet and includes both connectors.
* Wire shape: The shape of the wire can either be round or flat.
* Jacket material: This will include polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and rubber. While PVC is mostly used indoors, rubber jackets are used for dry and damp areas.
* Maximum cable temperature: This is measured in degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius.
* Rated current
* Rated voltage


Approvals and Certifications
DC power cord manufacturers can take approvals like the UL Mark and the CSA Mark. Underwriters Laboratories (UL): It is a non-profit organization that undertakes various tests of components, systems, and materials according to its published standards for safety. Products receiving the approval of this organization bear a UL Mark.

Canadian Standards Association or CSA is an organization that tests these products on various parameters. Products that get the approval from this organization after meeting specific safety and performance levels bear the mark of the organization.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is another organization that provides certifications and approvals to manufacturers.

Changeover Switches

Changeover Switches



Also known as an SPDT switch, a changeover switch is a common type of switch that can be positioned in two closed states. It provides two distinct situations, the making of one contact and breaking the other. A changeover switch provides two distinct events, the making of one contact and the breaking of the other.

The switch consists of three pins: the common (C) pin, the normally closed (NC) pin, connected to the common pin when the switch is not pressed, and the normally open (NO) pin, connected to the common pin when the switch is pressed.

These switches are available in one pole, two pole, three pole and four pole configurations.

Changeover Switch Applications

* Residential complex
* Office
* Agriculture
* Pulp and paper
* Pharmaceutical

Flat Cables

Flat Cables



Flat cables, sometimes also known as ribbon cables, are a well known name in the field of electronics industry. They are used to interconnect the inner electrical systems especially in computers to connect peripherals. As these cables are flat, they distribute the mechanical load over the total width of the cable. Flat cables help them to increase heat dissipation and thus eliminate the need for large conductors.

Flat ribbon cables consist of highly stranded, individually insulated conductors that are laid parallel and then fused in a flat, flexible ribbon form. These flat cables don't need repetitious insulating material like the traditional round wire cables. The electrical characteristics like capacitance, impedance, attenuation remain uniform because of the uniform geometry in these cables.

Flat Cables

Construction of Flat Cables
Flat cables are typically made of plastic substrates. They have a number of electrical conductors fixed to the plastic substrate. There may be 3 or 4 conductors to more than 50 conductors in a single cable. The axial distance between the adjacent conductors is usually 0.05 inches. The combination of substrate and plastic is flexible and flat. The width of conductors vary according to the device requirement. Plastic substrate are made from different types of plastics. They are:

* Polyester
* Polyvinyl
* Polyamide
* Plyetherimide
* Polyethylene
* Naphthalate
* Polycarbonate

Flat Cable Insulation
A variety of materials is used for insulating the flat cables. Some of the most common and popular in use are:

* Ethylene propylene diene elastomer (EPDM): A chemically cross-linked product which has excellent flexibility at high as well as at low temperatures.

* Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP): It is a thermoplastic having strong dielectric properties. Mostly used in high temperature applications and specially in fire-rated cables.

* Polyethylene (PE): A thermoplastic, having a stable dielectric constant. Usually suitable for those applications where low temperature is required.

* Polypropylene: It is similar to polyethylene but is more stiff. Also it has a higher softening temperature.

* Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): It is generally used in non-plenum wire insulation and cable jackets.

* Other Materials: Except all the materials defined above there are certain other materials which are used rapidly. They are polychloroprene, fluropolymers, fluorocopolymers, silicon rubber.

Flat Cable Conductors
Cable conductors are simply wires or group of wires used to carry current from the source to destination. They are not insulated from each other. A variety of materials are used as conductor in flat cables. Aluminum and copper are the two most common metals used for conductors. Aluminum has excellent electrical and thermal properties and is highly resistant to corrosion. It has a density about one-third less than steel, copper, or nickel. On the other hand copper is the extensively used electrical conductor having magnificent corrosion resistance properties and high thermal conductivity.

* Aluminum
* Aluminum alloys
* Aluminum-clad steel
* Copper
* Copper alloys
* Copper-clad steel


Application Industry
Flat cables are commonly used in electrical and electronic equipment. There are a lot of other industries where flat cables are widely used.

* Personal computers and communication equipment.
* Digital and analog tape heads
* Ink jet and dot matrix printer heads
* Connection between the body of laptop computer and its lid.
* Mobile phones
* Medical instruments
* Business machines
* In other consumer electronics and telecommunication industry where small and lightweight flexible cables are required.

Advantages of Flat Cables
Electronic devices are supposed to perform better even in harsh conditions and environments. Flat cables are flexible, thinner, and lighter. Due to these properties the flat cables are the most appropriate for electrical interconnections. The high flexibility of flat cables eliminates the need of group wires. Since these wires are a mess of a number of conductors insulated from each other and they have bending ability. So it is easy to do wiring and other work.

Medical Cables

Medical Cables



Medical cables are the electrical cables used in hospitals, clinics, laboratories and other medical facilities. These cables are used to connect various medical devices, apparatus and laboratory equipment. These devices are used for patient monitoring and other medical applications.

Medical Cable


Features of Medical Cables
Though the medical cables are used in normal environment at normal temperature but even though they should have certain general features and properties.

* Medical Cables should be able to withstand the general wear and tear.
* Medical Cables should be able to bear high abrasion, high tension, and high temperature.
* Medical Cables should have an scratch resistant cover which should be able to provide relatively low surface friction.
* Medical Cables should be mechanically durable.


Materials used in Medical Cables
Medical Cables are designed and manufactured in such a way that it should perform consistently and reliably in different environments. Cables specially made for medical applications are complex, heavily regulated so that they could perform even after continuous repeated exposures to several sterilization processes, including autoclave, ETO, gamma, e-beam, and high level disinfectants and sterilants. The selection of materials for insulation, tape-shield laminate, and jacket should be appropriate.

* PVC
* Polyurethanes
* Polypropylenes

Specifications for Medical Cables
Medical cables should be resistant to discoloration and they should be highly flexible. Important specifications for medical cables include:

* Conductor range: The conductors used in medical cables are generally copper. But in some applications aluminum and other materials are also used.

* Shielding: Shielding of medical cables is necessary to keep the conductors away and avoid the interference from each other.

* Insulation: The insulation of medical cables is a very important for their long life and proper functioning. The materials used for insulation in these cables include PVC, polyurethane, and other plastics.

* Plating: Some medical cables also require the plating of conductors for the proper functioning of devices and equipment.

* Jacket material: The material used for jacketing the cables should be durable and long lasting.


Applications of Medical Cables
Medical cables are made for use in medical fields in a variety of devices and instruments. They are applicable in health care, medical, and laboratory applications. Some of the cables are used with wearable therapeutic devices and laboratory analysis equipment. The most common and widely used devices and instruments are:

* Electronic catheters
* Patient monitoring systems
* Ultrasound equipment
* ECG machines
* Ultrasound machines
* Heart rate monitors
* Defibrillator
* Fetal monitors

Medical Fiber Optics Cables
Fiber optics have been one of the most important materials used in the medical field for years. Its physical characteristics automatically make it a natural option for various applications. The fiber optic cables are usually used for illumination, light conductors, flexible light guides, laser delivery systems, flexible image bundles, and other similar uses. Fiber optics offer a very compact and flexible passage for light or data delivery in surgical equipment and instrumentation applications.

Applications of fiber optics cables
The traditional and common medical fiber optic uses include a myriad of applications:

* Light therapy
* X-ray imaging
* Ophthalmic lasers
* Lab and clinical diagnostics
* Dental hand pieces
* Surgical and diagnostic instrumentation
* Endoscopy
* Surgical microscopy

Medical Cables: Flexibility and flex life

* Flexibility and flex life are two different things but both of them are equally important for the proper functioning and long term working of medical cables. Medical cables should be flexible as well as should also have sufficient flex life.

* Flexibility defines the cables ability to remain supple and soft while flex life is cable's proficiency to perform consistently even after continuous flexing cycles operating at high speeds and for millions of repetitions.

* Flex life is not of so much importance for disposable or limited-use applications. For flexural survival different specifications are needed to be considered like elasticity, material's coefficient of friction, and flex modulus.

* Certain other things which are important for improving the medical cables flex life are special tapes and laminates, the helical lay of primary components, sub assemblies, tapes, and fillers. The extrusion technique, pressure, semi-pressure, and tube techniques also effects on flexural characteristics of extruded materials.

Extension Cords

Extension Cords



Also known as an extension lead or a power extending cord, an extension cord, is a flexible power cable with one or more sockets on one end and a plug on the other end. It is commonly used in households and other areas. If a cord has different types of plugs and receptacles, it is also known as an adapter cord.

Extension Coard

Extension Cords Types
There are two types of extension cords available in the market depending on the end use. These are:

* Indoor extension cords
* Outdoor extension cords

Both the above types of extension cords are marked with their suitable use. One should never use an inside cord in outside applications and vice versa.

These cords are available in different lengths and thickness for use in different applications. These cords should be chosen depending on the power needed by the appliance, with which the cord will be used. This means higher the power, thicker the cord.

There are specialty cords available for use in the outdoors, wet areas, and in situation where there is exposure to sunlight for a long period of time.

Extension Cords Features
Different extensions cord are provided with safety features. These include:

* Fusible link
* Grounded terminals
* Polarized plug and receptacle
* 'Power-on' indicator
* Residual-current device or GFCI

Extension Cord Variants
There are certain variants of extension cords available in the market for use in different fields. These include:
Multi outlet extension cords: This is a common type of extension cord consisting of a main cable, having a plug connected at one end and a socket connected at the other end. The extension cord is used for conducting electricity to electricity consuming devices that are connected to the sockets. These extension cords have different outlets that are evenly spaced along the length of the cord.

Generator extension cords: These cords are used with a generator for safely redistributing power and also preventing damage to the appliance. The cords are available in varying lengths and amperage ratings for meeting different requirements.


Heavy Duty extension cords: These extension cords are used for high wattage appliances like air conditioners, portable electric heaters, and freezers etc. The cords are used for both outdoor and indoor extensions.

Coiled extension cords: These are simple cords having a very long length and can be easily extended to long distances. These cords are manufactured according to the specifications laid by different industries.

Extension Cords Applications
These cords used in:

* Generators
* Hand tools
* Portable appliances

Buyers Advisory
The following section contains certain important information for buyers in different countries. This information will help them choose the right product according to their requirements.

Most manufacturers provide valuable information on the packing for the help of the buyers. These include:
These cords are labeled with valuable information as to the

* Use of the cord
* Size or gauge of the cord: In the American wire gauge system, larger the wire, smaller the AWG number.
* Length of the cord.
* Wattage rating of the cord.

Manufacturers also ensure that the product has safety enclosures, rating information about electrical current and warning labels for the protection of users and children.

Enameled Wires

Enameled Wires


Enameled wire is a thin wire insulated with the help of coating. The core material used in it is copper and it is covered with a thin layer of enamel. It is primarily used in electric motor coils. It produces magnetic flux when electricity passes through it. Though enameled wire is insulated but there is no need of stripping off the insulation as for other insulated wires. These wires can be soldered as well.



Enameled Wires

Uses of Enameled wires

* Enameled wire is used in motor coils.
* Enameled wire is used in the construction of electromagnets.
* Enameled wire is also used in construction of transformers and inductors.

Properties of Enameled Wires

* Enameled wires have excellent resistance to heat. That's why they are used in making electric coils. They are also resistant to heat shock.
* They are also resistant to wearing and tearing.
* They offer especially magnificent resistance to refrigerant materials.
* They are smooth, hard, and durable.
* They are chemically resistant, and cannot burn.

Application of Enameled Wires

* Enameled wires are appropriate to be used in compressor motors of freezer, refrigerator and air conditioner.
* They are also best suited to be used in the motors which operate at high temperature, high speed. They are also suitable for those motors which require repeated starting.
* They are applied in hermetical motors and coils of electrical devices.
* They are suitable for those applications where high speed automatic winding is needed.


Types of Enameled Wires
On the basis of materials used in making the core of the wire the enameled wire can be divided into two types. Mainly aluminum and copper is used as the major material for these wires. Sometimes copper-clad aluminum wire is also used.

* Enameled Aluminum Wires: In this category of enameled wires the core material used in the conductor is aluminum. They have very good electric conductivity and are low weight. These wires have high hot impact performance. The enameled aluminum wires are ideal for electric machinery with short and periodic workloads.

* Enameled Copper Wires: The material used in making conductor in this type of wire is copper. These enameled wires have high thermal resistance and are thermally stable. They are resistance to freon. They are resistant to high overload and can bear high heat shock. They are used for smoke and heat exhaust motors and inverter-driven motors.

Classification of Enameled Wires
Enameled wires are classified on three basis. They are classified by

* Diameter
* Temperature
* Isolation

Magnet Wire Connectors

Magnet Wire Connectors



Molex offers a complete line of crimp terminals and connectors that provide solutions for the splicing and tapping of magnet wire and aluminum wire. Our product offering includes ring terminals with stud sizes from #6 through 1/2", male and female .250"x .032"quick disconnects, along with spade terminals. Our taps and splices have an open side which permits easy access to wire and makes internal coil tapping easy.

The terminals and connectors are made from copper alloy, tin plated and are designed to penetrate magnet wire insulation as they are applied, eliminating the need for stripping, brazing and welding.

Terminal Blocks

Terminal Blocks



A Wide Selection of Terminal Blocks to Support a Broad Range of Applications

Molex offers a variety of terminal blocks in wire-to-board and wire-to-wire configurations to support applications ranging from HVAC equipment, power supplies and data acquisition to inverters, motion and process controls and factory and building automation.

In addition to the many industry standard terminal blocks, Molex also offers a variety of unique terminal blocks. These include the Beau™ EuroMate™ which is a pluggable barrier strip; the most complete line of 600V high power PCB terminal blocks; and the Positive Locking Terminal Blocks Connection System. Molex also sells an assortment of accessories for use with its barrier terminal strips such as jumpers, marker strips and quick disconnect tabs.

With the range of terminal blocks and accessories available from Molex, there is sure to be a terminal block to meet any design requirement.

Washing machine

Washing machine



his article is about the laundry-cleaning apparatus. For the Sonic Youth album, see Washing Machine (album).
Front-loading washing machine

A clothes washer, or washer, is a machine designed to wash laundry, such as clothing, towels and sheets. The term is mostly applied only to machines that use water as the primary cleaning solution, as opposed to dry cleaning (which uses alternative cleaning fluids, and is performed by specialist businesses) or even ultrasonic cleaners.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 History
* 2 Washing machine milestones
* 3 Modern machines
* 4 Rinsing
* 5 Maintenance wash
* 6 Front- and top-loader comparisons
o 6.1 Consumer
o 6.2 Usage
o 6.3 Washing process
o 6.4 Noise levels
* 7 European standards
* 8 United States standards
* 9 Commercial washing machine
* 10 Industrial washing machines
* 11 Washing machine manufacturers
* 12 Role in women's liberation
* 13 See also
* 14 References
* 15 External links

[edit] History
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Tirreler Bauerntradition shows an early Miele washing machine in the Roscheider Hof, Open Air Museum
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To clean clothing it is necessary to rub and flex the cloth to break apart solids and help the soap penetrate. At first this was done by pounding or rubbing the clothing with rocks in a river, and later developed into the corrugated wash board. In Roman times a person would whiten clothing by rubbing it against a rock while letting soap lay on it. The soap was made of animal fat.

Clothes washer technology developed as a way to reduce the drudgery of this scrubbing and rubbing process by providing an open basin or sealed container with paddles or fingers to automatically agitate the clothing. The earliest machines were often hand-operated. As electricity was not commonly available until at least 1930, these early machines were often operated by a low-speed single-cylinder hit and miss gasoline engine.

Because water usually had to be heated on a fire for washing, the warm soapy water was precious and would be reused over and over, first to wash the least soiled clothing, then to wash progressively dirtier clothing. While the earliest machines were constructed from wood, later machines made of metal permitted a fire to burn below the washtub, to keep the water warm throughout the day's washing.

Removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was originally a separate process. The soaking wet clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. To help reduce this labour, the wringer/mangle was developed, which uses two rollers under spring tension to squeeze water out of the clothing. Each piece of clothing would be fed through the wringer separately. The first wringers were hand-operated, but were eventually included as a powered attachment above the washer tub. The wringer would be swung over the wash tub so that extracted wash water would fall back into the tub to be reused for the next wash load.

The modern process of water removal by spinning did not come into use until electric motors were developed. Spinning requires a constant high-speed power source, and was originally done in a separate device known as an extractor. A load of washed clothing would be transferred from the wash tub to the extractor basket, and the water spun out.[1] These early extractors were often dangerous to use since unevenly distributed loads would cause the machine to shake violently. Many efforts have been made to counteract the shaking of unstable loads, first by mounting the spinning basket on a free-floating shock-absorbing frame to absorb minor imbalances, and a bump switch to detect severe movement and stop the machine so that the load can be manually redistributed. Many modern machines are equipped with a sealed ring of liquid that works to counteract any imbalances.

What is now referred to as an automatic washer was at one time referred to as a washer/extractor, which combines the features of these two devices into a single machine, plus also includes the ability to fill and drain water by itself. It is possible to take this a step further, to also merge the automatic washing machine and clothes dryer into a single device, but this is generally uncommon because the drying process tends to use much more energy than using two separate devices; a combined washer/dryer not only must dry the clothing, but also need to dry out the wash chamber itself.

In 2009, the semi-official newspaper of the Holy See, pronounced the washing machine an important milestone in the liberation of women, as it freed them from the drudgery of household chores.[2]
[edit] Washing machine milestones
19th-century Metropolitan washing machine
A vintage German model

The first English patent under the category of Washing and Wringing Machines was issued in 1691.[3] A drawing of an early washing machine appeared in the January 1752 issue of "The Gentlemen's Magazine," a British publication. In Germany, Jacob Christian Schäffer's washing machine design was published in 1767.[4] In 1782 Henry Sidgier was issued a British patent for a rotating drum washer.

The first United States Patent titled "Clothes Washing" was granted to Nathaniel Briggs of New Hampshire in 1797. Fire destroyed the patent office and no description of the device exists so it is not known what kind of washing device Briggs invented. A device that combined a washing machine with a wringer mechanism did not appear until 1843 when John E. Turnbull of Saint John, New Brunswick patented a "Clothes Washer With Wringer Rolls."[5]

Electric washing machines were advertised and discussed in newspapers as early as 1904.[6] Louis Goldenberg of New Brunswick, New Jersey invented the electric washing machine around the late 1800s to early 1900s. He worked for the Ford Motor Company at that time, and all inventions that were created while working for Ford under contract, belonged to Ford. The patent would have been listed under Ford and or Louis Goldenberg.[citation needed] Alva J. Fisher has been incorrectly credited with the invention of the electric washer. The US patent office shows at least one patent issued before Mr. Fisher's US patent number 966677 (e.g. Woodrow's US patent number 921195).

US electric washing machine sales reached 913,000 units in 1928. However, high unemployment rates in the Depression years hit sales; by 1932 the number of units shipped was down to about 600,000.

The first laundromat opened in Fort Worth, Texas in 1934[citation needed]. It was run by Andrew Clein. Patrons used coin-in-the-slot facilities to rent washing machines. The term laundromat can be found in newspapers as early as 1884 and they were widespread during the depression. It is almost impossible to determine who had the first laundromat. England established public wash rooms for laundry along with bath houses throughout the nineteenth century.[7]

Washer design improved during the 1930s; the mechanism was now enclosed within a cabinet; more attention was paid to electrical safety; spin dryers were introduced, to replace the dangerous power wringers of the day.

Early automatic washing machines were usually connected to the water supply via temporary slip-on connectors to the sink taps. Later, permanent connections to both the hot and cold water supplies became the norm. Most modern front-loading European machines now only have a cold water connection (i.e. cold fill) and rely completely on electric heaters to raise the water temperature.

By 1940, 60% of the 25,000,000 wired homes in the United States had an electric washing machine. Many of these machines featured a power wringer, although built-in spin dryers were not uncommon.

Bendix introduced the first automatic washing machine in 1937,[8] having applied for a patent in the same year.[9] In appearance and mechanical detail, this first machine is not unlike the front loading automatic washers produced today. Although it included many of the today's basic features, the machine lacked any drum suspension and therefore had to be anchored to the floor to prevent "walking".
1910 advertisement

Many of these early automatic machines had coin-in-the-slot facilities and were installed in the basement laundry rooms of apartment houses. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, US domestic washer production had to be suspended for the duration of World War II. However, many US appliance manufacturers were given permission to undertake the research and development of washers during the war years. Many took the opportunity to develop automatic machines, realizing that these represented the future for the industry.

An improved front loading automatic model, the Bendix Deluxe (which retailed at $249.50) was introduced in 1947.[10]

General Electric introduced the first top loading automatic also in 1947. This machine had many of the features that are incorporated into modern machines.

A large number of US manufacturers introduced competing automatic machines (mainly of the top loading type) in the late 1940s/early 1950s. Several manufacturers even produced semi-automatic machines, where the user had to intervene at one or two points in the wash cycle. A common semi-automatic type (available from Hoover in the UK until at least the 70's) included 2 tubs: one with an agitator or impeller for washing and/or rinsing; another, smaller, tub for water extraction or centrifugal rinsing.

One early form of automatic washing machine manufactured by Hoover used cartridges to program different wash cycles. This system, called the Keymatic, used plastic cartridges with key-like slots and ridges around the edges. The cartridge was inserted into a slot on the machine and a mechanical reader operated the machine accordingly. The system did not really take off, since it offered no real advantage over the more conventional program dial, and the cartridges were prone to getting lost. In hindsight it can be seen as a marketing gimmick rather than offering any really useful functionality.

Since their introduction in the late 1930s/mid 1940s, automatic washing machines have relied on mechanical timers to sequence the washing and extraction process. Mechanical timers consist of a series of cams on a common shaft. At the appropriate time in the wash cycle, each cam actuates a switch to engage/disengage a particular part of the machinery (e.g. drain pump motor). The timer shaft is driven by a small electric motor via a reduction gearbox.

On the early mechanical timers the motor ran at a constant speed throughout the wash cycle, although it was possible for the user to truncate parts of the program, by manually advancing the control dial. However, by the 1950s demand for greater flexibility in the wash cycle led to the introduction of electronic timers to supplement the mechanical timer. These electronic timers enable greater variation in such functions as the wash time. With this arrangement, the electric timer motor is periodically switched-off to permit the clothing to soak, and is only re-energised just prior to a micro-switch being engaged/disengaged.

Despite the high cost of automatic washers, manufacturers had difficulty in meeting the demand. Although there were material shortages during the Korean War, by 1953 automatic washing machine sales in the US exceeded those of wringer-type electric machines.

In the UK and in most of Europe, electric washing machines did not become popular until the 1950s. This was largely because of the economic impact of World War II on the consumer market which did not properly recover until the late 1950s. The early electric washers were single tub, wringer-type machines, automatic washing machines being extremely expensive. During the 1960s, twin tub machines briefly became very popular, helped by the low price of the Rolls Razor washers. Automatic washing machines did not become dominant in the UK until well into the 1970s and by then were almost exclusively of the front-loader design.
A 1950s model

In early automatic washing machines, any changes in impeller/drum speed were achieved by mechanical means or by a rheostat on the motor power supply. However, since the 1970s electronic control of motor speed has become a common feature on the more expensive models.

Early front loading machines, especially those manufactured in Mediterranean countries (e.g. Italy), had low spin speeds (e.g. 800 rpm or less). Nowadays, a spin speed of 1200 rpm is common and a peak spin speed as high as 1600 rpm is available on many machines. Now models in Europe have speeds of 1800 rpm and a few European washing machines have a spin speed of 2000 rpm. However, because they were not susceptible to gravitational forces, some early top loading machines had spin speeds in excess of 1000 rpm, although some were as low as 360 rpm. Most US top-loading washers have spin speeds less than 1000 rpm.

In the late 1990s, the British inventor James Dyson launched a type of washing machine with two cylinders rotating in opposite directions; which, it is claimed, reduces the wash time and produces cleaner results; however, this machine is not now in production.

In the early 1990s, upmarket machines incorporated microcontrollers for the timing process. These proved reliable, so many cheaper machines now incorporate microcontrollers, rather than mechanical timers. Washing machines are a classic application for fuzzy logic. Miele, from West Germany, was the top of the line front load washer, and was introduced in Kananaskis, Alberta by Glenn Isbister starting a revolution in Laundry in Canada.

In 1994, Staber Industries released the System 2000 washing machine, which is the only top loading, horizontal-axis washer to be manufactured in the United States. The hexagonal tub spins like a front loading machine, only using about third of the water as conventional top-loaders. This factor has led to an Energy Star rating for its high efficiency.

In 2001, Whirlpool Corporation introduced the Calypso, the first vertical-axis high efficiency washing machine to be top-loading. A washplate in the bottom of the tub nutated to bounce, shake, and toss the laundry around. As this happened, water containing detergent was sprayed on to the laundry. The machine proved to be good at cleaning but gained a bad reputation due to frequent breakdowns and destruction of laundry and the washer was recalled with a class-action lawsuit and pulled off the market.

In 2007, Sanyo introduced the first drum type washing machine with ‘Air Wash’ function.[11] This washing machine uses only 50L of water in the recycle mode.

In 2008, the University of Leeds created a washing machine that uses only a cup (about 0.5 imperial pints (280 ml)) of water to carry out a full wash. The machine leaves clothes virtually dry, and uses less than 2 per cent of the water and energy otherwise used by a conventional machine. As such, it could save billions of litres of water each year. [12]
[edit] Modern machines

Modern washing machines are available in two configurations: top loading and front loading.

The top loading design or V-axis clothes washer, most popular in Australia, Canada, the United States and Latin America, places the clothes in a vertically-mounted perforated basket that is contained within a water-retaining tub, with a propeller-like agitator in center of the bottom of the basket. Clothes are loaded through the top of the machine, which is covered with a hinged door. During the wash cycle, the outer tub is filled with water sufficient to suspend the clothing freely in the basket, and the movement of the agitator pulls the clothing downward in the center towards the agitator paddles. The clothing then moves outward and up the sides of the basket to repeat the process. Top-loaders are not well-suited to cleaning large objects such as pillows or sleeping bags due to the tendency for them to just float on the surface of the water without circulating, and the aggressive agitator action can damage delicate fabrics.

In most top loading washers, if the motor spins in one direction, the gearbox drives the agitator; if the motor spins the other way, the gearbox locks the agitator and spins the basket and agitator together. Similarly if the pump motor rotates one way it recirculates the sudsy water; in the other direction it pumps water from the machine during the spin cycle. Because they usually incorporate a gearbox, clutch, crank, etc, top loading washers are mechanically more complex than front loading machines but are generally lower maintenance since there is no need for a door seal (described below).
Arctic BE1200A+ is a front loading budget model sold in 2008 with 6 kg load, LCD indicator, 1200 RPM

The front loading design or H-axis clothes washer, most popular in Europe and the Middle East, mounts the inner basket and outer tub horizontally, and loading is through a door at the front of the machine. The door often but not always contains a window. Agitation is supplied by the back-and-forth rotation of the cylinder and by gravity. The clothes are lifted up by paddles on the inside wall of the drum and then dropped. This motion flexes the weave of the fabric and forces water and detergent solution through the clothes load. Because the wash action does not require the clothing be freely suspended in water, only enough water is needed to moisten the fabric. Because less water is required, front-loaders typically use less soap, and the aggressive dropping and folding action of the tumbling can easily produce large amounts of foam.

Front-loaders control water usage through the surface tension of water, and the capillary wicking action this creates in the fabric weave. A front-loader washer always fills to the same low water level, but a large pile of dry clothing standing in water will soak up the moisture, causing the water level to drop. The washer then refills to maintain the original water level. Because it takes time for this water absorption to occur with a motionless pile of fabric, nearly all front-loaders begin the washing process by slowly tumbling the clothing under the stream of water entering and filling the drum, to rapidly saturate the dry clothes with water.

Front loading washers are mechanically simple compared to top-loaders, with the main motor normally being connected to the drum via a grooved pulley belt and large pulley wheel, without the need for a gearbox, clutch or crank. But front-load washers suffer from their own technical problems, due to the drum lying sideways. For example, a top loading washer keeps water inside the tub merely through the force of gravity pulling down on the water, while a front-loader must tightly seal the door shut with a gasket to prevent dripping water onto the floor during the wash cycle. This access door is locked shut during the entire wash cycle, since opening the door with the machine in use could result in water gushing out onto the floor. For front-loaders without viewing windows on the door, it is possible to accidentally pinch fabric between the door and the drum, resulting in tearing and damage to the pinched clothing during tumbling and spinning.

Nearly all front-loader washers for the consumer market must also use a folded flexible bellows assembly around the door opening, to keep clothing contained inside the basket during the tumbling wash cycle. If this bellows assembly were not used, small articles of clothing such as socks could slip out of the wash basket near the door, and fall down the narrow slot between the outer tub and basket, plugging the drain and possibly jamming rotation of the inner basket. Retrieving lost items from between the outer tub and inner basket can require complete disassembly of the front of the washer and pulling out the entire inner wash basket. Commercial and industrial front-loaders used by businesses (described below) usually do not use the bellows, and instead require all small objects to be placed in a mesh bag to prevent loss near the basket opening.

This bellows assembly around the door is the source of problems for the consumer front-loader. The bellows has a large number of flexible folds to permit the tub to move separately from the door during the high speed extraction cycle. On American machines, these folds can collect lint, dirt, and moisture, resulting in mold and mildew growth and a foul odor. Some front-loading washer operating instructions say the bellows should be wiped down monthly with a strong bleach solution, while others offer a special freshening cycle where the machine is run empty with a strong dosing of bleach. In the past, suggested remedies have included adding vinegar to the laundry detergent, running an empty cycle with bleach every few weeks, wiping the door gasket with a diluted bleach solution every other week, and leaving the front-loading washer door ajar between loads.

A top-loading washer suffers from none of these continued maintenance problems and needs no regular freshening. During the spin cycle, a top-loading tub is free to move about inside the cabinet of the machine, using only a lip around the top of the inner basket and outer tub to keep the spinning water and clothing from spraying out over the edge.

There are many variations of these two general themes. Top loading machines in Asia use impellers instead of agitators. Impellers are similar to agitators except that they do not have the center post extending up in the middle of the wash tub basket. There is also a top loading variant of the horizontal axis design that is loaded from the top, through a small door in the circumference of the drum. These machines usually have a shorter cylinder and are therefore smaller, but offer the efficiency of a front-loader while eliminating the problems of the flexible bellows. This kind of washing machine is sold and popular in Europe, especially in small households, because it offers the same drum system as front loaders, just with a smaller footprint.

Front-loaded machines are ideal for fitted/finished kitchens, since they can be installed under a countertop/worktop. A front loading washing machine, in a fully-fitted kitchen, is often disguised as an ordinary base cabinet/unit. They are also ideal for small homes and apartments with limited space, because the dryer can be installed directly above the washer. They're also more convenient for little people and those with paraplegia, as the controls are front-mounted and the horizontal drum eliminates the need for standing and/or climbing.

Many front loading machines have electrical heating elements to heat the wash bath to near boiling. Chemical action is supplied by the detergent and other laundry chemicals. Front loaders use special detergents that are designed to release different chemical ingredients at different temperatures. This is so that different type of stains and soils will be cleaned from the clothes as the wash water is heated up by the electrical heater. Front loaders also need to use low sudsing detergents because the tumbling action of the drum folds air into the clothes load that can cause over-sudsing. Due to the concentration of water and detergent, though, the sudsing issue of front-loaders can also be controlled by simply using less detergent without lessening cleaning action.

Tests comparing front loading and top loading machines have shown that, in general, front-loaders wash clothes more thoroughly, cause less wear, and use less water and energy than top-loaders. As a result of using less water, they require less detergent to be used, or conversely, they can use the same amount of detergent with less water, which increases detergent concentration and increases the amount of chemical action. They also allow a dryer to be more easily mounted directly above the washer.

Top-loaders have had the advantage that they complete a washing cycle much faster and allow clothes to be removed at intermediate stages of the cycle (for instance, if some clothes within a wash are not to be spun). Many current front-loaders, though, can be stopped and added-to or removed-from because the water level in the horizontal tub is still below the door level. They also tend to be easier to load and unload, since reaching into the tub does not require stooping. Again, this issue can be mitigated due to the offering of risers (usually with storage drawers underneath) to raise the door opening closer to the user's level. The top loader's spin cycle between washing and rinsing allows an extremely simple fabric softener dispenser, which operates passively through centrifugal force and gravity. The same objective must be accomplished by a solenoid-operated valve on a front loader. Another advantage to the top loading design is the reliance on gravity to contain the water, rather than potentially trouble-prone or short-lived front door seals.

Traditionally, top loading machines have tended to be more complex mechanically than front loading washers, because the former generally require a transmission, clutch assembly, and brake to perform the wash/spin cycle. However, the electro-mechanical components in conventional top-load washers have largely reached maturity. In contrast, complications caused by higher-speed drum rotation on consumer-level front-load machines, combined with the addition of electronic circuit boards, control touchpads, and various sensors has significantly impacted frequency-of-repair and expected service life.
[edit] Rinsing

Washing machines perform several rinses after the main wash to remove most of the detergent. Modern washing machines use less water due to environmental concerns, however this has led to the problem of poor rinsing on many washing machines on the market,[13] which can be a problem to people who are sensitive to detergents. The Allergy UK website suggests re-running the rinse cycle again.[14]
[edit] Maintenance wash

Washing machine manufacturers are now advising users to perform a regular maintenance wash which cleans the inside of the washing machine. A maintenance wash is performed without any laundry on the hottest wash programme,[15] using either one of the following: white vinegar, a detergent with bleaching properties (it's not advisable to put actual bleach inside the washing machine!) or you could use a proprietary washing machine cleaner. The purpose of a maintenance wash is to remove any mould, bacteria, old detergent residue and gunge. If using white vinegar, it's important to allow the washing machine to fill for about 30 seconds before adding the vinegar, as the first bit of water goes into the sump.[16]
[edit] Front- and top-loader comparisons
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Some top-loader advocates have argued that a top-loader leans more towards efficiency with dramatically faster wash times, although comparisons of energy use show this to be wrong -- front loaders generally use less energy, water and detergent and clean almost as effectively as the best top loaders.[17] Newer U.S. top loaders (manufactured in the US after 2007) however come out poorly since new regulations have reduced the amount of energy they consume, which has resulted in shortened cycles and less effective cleaning. Front loaders do tend to have longer cycle times but lean toward lower overall energy consumption (especially hot washes) by virtue of dramatically lower amounts of water and less detergent required.
[edit] Consumer
Feature Top Loading Washer Front Loading Washer
European Market Share 10%** 90%
US Market Share 65% 35%

In the United States, top-loading machines are the most commonly used. However, in Europe the front-loading style is preferred. A factor in the preference for front-loaders in Europe is the preference for integrated appliances that sit under countertops in kitchens and utility rooms or that can be fully integrated and concealed in kitchen cabinetry. Also, because the first mass marketed automatic washing machines sold from the 1950s onwards in Europe were almost exclusively front loaders European consumers tended to associate top loaders with labour intensive obsolete technology. European households also tend to pay more attention to water and energy conservation as heavy environmental taxes are levied on both water and energy use. Front loading machines also offer much higher spin drying speeds of up to 2000 RPM. This makes it possible to dry clothes very quickly by hanging them on washing lines or airing racks or can substantially reduce the length of time required in a tumble dryer. The EU also has a comprehensive energy efficiency, wash performance and spin dry performance labelling system which rates major appliance performance from A to G. This has driven consumers away from inefficient machines as they will generally try to buy A rated appliances. For example a "Triple A" (AAA) rated machine = Lowest Energy Consumption, Best Wash and Best Water Extraction (Spin) performance.

It should also be noted that while 10% of European washing machines may be top loading they are not of the same design as North American machines. Rather than washing the clothes with an agitator, they also use a horizontally mounted drum. The clothes are loaded through a hatch in the drum wall. Their design is mechanically identical to that of a front loader. These machines are particularly popular for small apartments as they take up less floor space than a conventional front loader and for historical marketing reasons are more popular in certain EU countries. For example they are quite commonly found in French houses while they're practically unheard of in the UK and Republic of Ireland.[citation needed]
[edit] Usage

Front-loaders feature a washing style that requires less water than a top-loader and today's front-loaders achieve much better washing results while treating the garments more gently. Front-loaders offer quick programs which are in the same time range as top-loader cycles.
[edit] Washing process

Washing times for front-loaders are more flexible and some manufacturers offer programs which last just 15 minutes.
[edit] Noise levels

Front loading machines in general tend to operate more quietly than top loaders.
[edit] European standards
The EU requires washing machines carry an efficiency label

Capacity and cost are the main considerations when purchasing a washing machine. If intended for use by a little family, a capacity of under 5 kg should be sufficient (thus saving energy and running costs).

Washing machines display an EU Energy Label with grades for washing performance, energy efficiency and spin efficiency. Grades run from A to G (best to worst), and provide a simple method for judging running costs and performance. One important factor that's missing from the energy labelling scheme is the washing machine's rinsing performance, which can adversely affect allergy sufferers and people who are sensitive to laundry detergents and chemicals. It's advisable to check an independent consumer report on how well a washing machine can rinse before purchasing, as newer washing machines use a lot less water than older ones.[13]